Enoch: Chapter 3 Part 1
October 27, 2007
From Judaism to Christianity
“Nothing whatever must be rejected by us which pertains to us…”
-Tertullian
Around 164 BCE, Judas Maccabeus took action to close the Jewish canon so that it could reach a settled state. This Maccabean canon became widely accepted among the sects of Judaism. However, scholars have discovered literature from parts of the Jewish community that presented arguments over this arrangement. The writings argued that there were books in the Maccabean canon that should not have been canonized due to a variety of reasons. Although arguments for the exclusion of books from the canon were made, this had no effect on their status. As time went on and no changes occurred in light of them, these arguments began to lose their steam. It was not until the efforts of Christianity in the 1st-3rd CE centuries, that another group insisted on a change in what was to be regarded as scripture. The argument was not for the exclusion of certain books but for the inclusion of those texts, which they believed spoke prophetically of Jesus as the Christ. Out of the massive amounts of ancient Jewish texts, the authoritative canon was widened. In the midst of developing its own traditions, Christians seemed to be drawing from almost any text that might at least give the appearance of a Christological reference. As a result, Christianity developed a blurred understanding of the canon established by Judas Maccabeus.[1] This broadened scope of authoritative literature included 1 Enoch and other Essenic texts, although scholars are unsure as to exactly how the predominantly secret literature of the Essenes became so widely known within Christianity. What is understood is that there was a progression with regard to 1 Enoch: first, it was mentioned only briefly, then its influence grew to the point where other books were being written in imitation of its style and structure.[2] After gathering the literature of early Christianity, scholars of early Christianity organized the texts to show the path Enochic literature has taken, especially within the first few centuries of the Common Era. Here, the early writings of Christian patriarchs and various movements will be discussed as the name “Enoch” was represented in both the Christian canon and other early Church documents.[3]
AUTHORITY OF ENOCHIC THEMES
The following passages are addressed chronologically to show the movement of Enochic themes throughout early Christianity. The most dominant themes of 1 Enoch used by early Christian writers are in the Book of the Watchers. It is important to note that almost all of these texts describing the books of 1 Enoch as authoritative do not believe them to be pseudonymous[4]. Although it is unclear whether or not the author(s) of 1 Enoch were intending the text to be deceitful, the texts discussed below reveal that some later readers believed that the Enochic texts were written by Enoch himself. The chronological order of these early Church writings will show the progression of 1 Enoch from an almost certainly authoritative text, to one about which the vast majority of the Church becomes suspicious.
Scripture
Jude
This text, claiming to be authored by the brother of James, is believed to be a Palestinian text written in the second half of the first century. Within the Christian church, there has been debate about the canonized position of this text. In “On Illustrious Men”, Jerome writes, “Jude the brother of James left a short epistle which belongs to the seven Catholic Epistles; and because in it he takes a testimony from the book of Enoch, which is apocryphal, it is rejected by many. Nevertheless, by age and use it has now earned authority and is reckoned among the Holy Scriptures”.[5] Regardless of this debate, Jude is a part of the canonized Scriptures of Christianity, and within it is a declaration of authority that the writer places on the prophesies in 1 Enoch.
VanderKam points out several different items within Jude (v14-15):
It was also about these that Enoch, in the seventh generation from Adam, prophesied saying, ‘See, the Lord is coming with ten thousands of his holy ones, to execute judgment on all, and to convict everyone of all the deeds of ungodliness that they have committed in such an ungodly way, and of all the harsh things that ungodly sinners have spoken against him. (v14-15)[6]
From these two verses, it is apparent that the author is familiar with the story of the Watchers and is confident that the antediluvian Enoch actually wrote the text. Jude declares that Enoch had predicted, from his pre-flood vantage point, the eschatological punishment of the ungodly that plagued the New Testament author. It is obvious that Jude believes in the prophetic authority contained in at least one portion of 1 Enoch.[7]
1 Peter 3.19-20
This text, possibly written in Rome, dates somewhere between 60 and 100 CE and claims Peter’s authorship[8]. The author uses the Watcher theme of the imprisoned spirits but places Christ in the story as the one who visited the imprisoned spirits and made proclamation to them. VanderKam suggests that “the writer puts the theme to creative use by casting the spirits as the audience for Christ’s post-passion proclamation”.[9] Beckwith suggests that this reference of 1 Enoch is a negative one; insisting that it was Christ who went to proclaim to them. “But, if this is the case, Peter is only referring to 1 Enoch in order to contradict it”.[10] Between these two opinions, it is clear that the story is being retold, and perhaps it is being done as aggadah[11], or an exegetical framework.
Epistle of Barnabas
Written between ca. 70 and 100 CE in Alexandria, this text is another example of pseudonymity. Attributed to Barnabas, its intended purpose was to point out Old Testament scriptures that the author believed to speak about Christ. Although the text will not be exhaustively exegeted here, the epistle does reference Enoch. It is unclear as to exactly what part of Enoch the author is addressing, but the phrase “For Scripture says…” precludes the Enochic material. For the author, the text of 1 Enoch, or at least some portions, contained data worthy of scriptural authority and would be suitable to aid him in his theological endeavors.[12]
2 Peter 2.4
Possibly originating from Asia Minor at the end of the first century, the author of this text was familiar with Jewish and Greek traditions. Building from the same inspirational passages that Jude 6 cites, this text documents the theme of the angels’ judgment. The difference between the two texts is that 2 Peter does not attribute the story of Judgment to Enoch.[13]
[1] Beckwith, 406.
[2] Beckwith, 407.
[3] For the sections dealing with “The Authority of Enochic Themes” see VanderKam, The Jewish Apocalyptic Heritage in Early Christianity, 35-101.
[4] It could be argued that sections of 1 Enoch would have been believed to be both authoritative and pseudonymous by some that cite the text. Tertullian described several possibilities of how the text could have survived the flood. One could have believed Tertullian’s possibility that the “Spirit renewed it (1 Enoch ) through inspiration”, allowing the text to be both scripturally authoritative and pseudonymous.
[5] Beckwith, 401.
[6] All Biblical references are taken from the Harper-Collins Study Bible, New Revised Standard Version.
[7] VanderKam. 36.
[8] Some scholars suggest it to be a pseudonymous text.
[9] VanderKam, 62.
[10] Beckwith, 403.
[11] Aggadah is a Jewish practice of creating an allegorical interpretation of a text, as opposed to a literal interpretation.
[12] VanderKam, 36-40.
[13] VanderKam, 63.
Enoch Chapter II part 2
September 19, 2007
Although there are many similarities, the ancient Hebrews organized omen texts in a different way than the Mesopotamian mantics. Mesopotamian literature focused on omens in such a way that they recorded them along with their meanings in collected texts. It appears to be in an effort to create a consistent definition of certain omens, much like a consistent diagnosis for a disease or ailment. However, consistency did not seem to be as important in the Hebraic Enoch texts.
The main connections between Mesopotamian and Jewish Apocalypse literature focus on divine wisdom, the process of revealing that wisdom, and, as we see clearly in 1 Enoch, the chosen who are to be the ones who understand this wisdom. All of this information is revealed in the process of a developing story told by the diviner. Within this process there is also an effort in the texts to deal with the problem of evil. One sees a clear distinction made between the righteous and the unrighteous. Those elect, the pure who have received the divine wisdom, are not only sure of their salvation but are also sure of their enemies’ destruction. The picture is so clear that we get the first reference within Jewish literature to a punishment that is to accompany the spirits in the afterlife.[1]
However, it is the job of the diviner to interpret and understand not only what is to come in the end, but what was made in the beginning as well. For if the problem of evil truly is a concern to the diviner, then by describing the beginning and end of evil, the diviner completes his perfect knowledge.[2] In 1 Enoch we see the evil being carried to term and born out of the lust of a few angels and the sin of women. “The Book of the Watchers” describes the angels’ fall, the sin of heavenly secrets explained to humanity, the evil giants that were born to the women, and the demonic spirits that were released from their bodies after the righteous overpowered the giants in battle. Nevertheless, evil continues to corrupt the earth through the spread of the secrets meant for heaven alone and through the continued presence of the demon spirits of the giants.[3] This situation will continue until the day of judgment, when the righteous will be lifted up and the sinful will be burdened and destroyed.
With this mysterious presence both at the beginning and end of time, the diviner has been revealed not only as a visitor of heaven but as one who became complete in his knowledge about heavenly things. The divine wisdom would then be passed to those elect ones who could understand the words. This expanded the role of the diviner to include what was mentioned previously: the role of the hero of culture. In 1 Enoch, he is the one who shares the secret science of the stars, the duties of the angels, the measurements of the throne room of God, the events of the last day, and the beginnings of evil.[4] By sharing what he knows, Enoch becomes the human source of all knowledge and judge of eschatological events–the “son of man,” as he labels himself at certain moments.[5] He was the first to explain what is presently known, to record and structure a chart of the stars, to assemble a calendar, and to record all of this into a written testimony. “Thus Enoch becomes the one whose contributions constitute the basis of civilized life, and in this respect they (the writers of Jewish Apocalypse) resemble other ancient traditions about mythological culture—bringers or culture heroes”.[6]
To further solidify this role, Jubilees (4.23-25) places Enoch in the Garden of Eden. Considered to be the place in which God resides, this is the proper place for Enoch to construct his written work. As his three-hundred and sixty-five years on earth were filled with his duties as a scribe, it is only proper for him to continue those duties forever in the presence of God, recording all the workings of heaven and the sins of humanity, while also providing sacrifices for God.[7] His text becomes the script from which God will read in the end, as judgment is placed on those that are evil and the elect are adorned with righteousness.
As is now clear, the development of Enochic literature does not stem from one source. Ideas from the text were previously a part of conversations happening between cultures. Themes were further developed in these texts to convey how a people understand themselves in light of world events. It would be impossible to completely unveil every mystery of the Enoch texts. However, by discussing the texts’ historical perspective, one begins to understand a little more of the mystery behind the theology that shaped Jewish and Christian Apocalyptic writings.
[1] Collins, 138.
[2] VanderKam 189.
[3] All 1 Enoch references are taken from Black’s 1 Enoch; 1 Enoch chapters 15-16
[4] 1 Enoch chapters 6-36.
[5] 1 Enoch chapters 46-48. The term “son of man” was coined within Enochic Literature and became a popular description for others who appeared to fulfill the role of the Diviner.
[6] VanderKam, 180-81.
[7] VanderKam, Jubilees 4.23-25.
Part I of Chapter II “Cultural Inlfuences”: from 1 Enoch
August 29, 2007
Cultural Influences
In dealing with Enochic literature, it is best to begin with some definitions, as terms can become confusing and misleading. Regarding the term “Apocalypse,” there are three definitions that are commonly used, although they are often intertwined. First and foremost, the term “Apocalypse” refers to a form or genre of literature written with a revelatory nature. Its purpose is to unveil once-hidden truths to a seer/diviner, through which the revealed things are passed down to those who can understand. Secondly, Apocalyptic Eschatology is defined as a religious understanding continuing from the tradition of prophetic eschatology, which focused on divine plans being carried out in current history and through human hands, but extending into a deliverance from an imperfect world to a greater one, ordered by the divine. Third, to quote James C. Vanderkam, “Apocalypticism refers to the symbolic universe of a group in which apocalyptic eschatology has assumed the all-powerful role of an ideology”.[1] Although texts such as 1 Enoch fulfill each of these three definitions at different points in time, not all texts of Jewish Apocalypse can be categorized according to each definition. Nevertheless, it is important to begin with such definitions as they are exemplified throughout Jewish Apocalypse, specifically in 1 Enoch, and even as they are further explored in Christian Apocalypse, such as John’s Revelation.
As its definition suggests, the common theme throughout this literature is divine or mantic wisdom: the mystery behind it, the chosen one who receives it, the elaborate ways in which it is revealed, the task of decoding it and passing it along. To determine the origin of this within Apocalypse literature, VanderKam discusses the topical writings of H. P. Muller. In his thesis on the use of mantic wisdom[2], Muller lists the five traits that are central to Apocalypse: (i) “their eschatological orientation; (ii) their determinism; (iii) the seer’s claim to a special enlightenment or authorization; (iv) the tendency to encode reality in symbols; and (v) possibly the pseudonymity so frequently found in this literature”.[3] Stemming from near eastern religions, this mantic wisdom mingled with and became a part of Jewish thought around the third century BCE as a retaliation to the effects of the Hellenistic era. This fusion of the “divinatory with the apocalyptic world”, VanderKam suggests, is best represented in Enoch.[4] In an effort to see this exchange of thought, VanderKam explains the two stories of Enoch and Enmuderanki (a Mesopotamian figure) in light of their incredible similarities, which were originally outlined by Heinrich Zimmern.[5]
In brief: both Enoch and Enmuderanki occupied the seventh position in antediluvian[6] lists (the seventh was a significant number, in Enoch’s case even placing the seventh descendant of Adam into the role of a diviner); communed with the hosts of heaven; were directly addressed and instructed from heavenly beings; and learned of the design/duties of the heavens and the future which they constructed.[7]
Scholars have much more information on Enmuderanki than what is available on Enoch. Zimmern’s research allowed scholars the freedom to apply some characteristics of Enmuderanki to Enoch since so many correlations were uncovered. What is known from both stories is that the role of the diviner is an esteemed position that came with natural abilities and the practiced trades of mantic wisdom. The other aspect of this role is that of becoming the hero of culture and faith by the process of passing true and perfect knowledge down to those capable of understanding.
As the use of mantic wisdom was a complicated trade, the secrets of heaven revealed within its practice were interpreted through several different media. A. Leo Oppenheim divides Mesopotamian mantic techniques into two categories, the operational and the magical. The operational techniques dealt more with a natural venue such as pouring oil onto water or watching smoke rise from a sensor and taking meaning from the configurations. Magical techniques allowed the gods to engage creation and communicate supernaturally through the movements of stars, meteors, an unusual behavior exhibited by a man or beast, and dreams.[8] VanderKam suggests that of these media, the two that directly correlate with Jewish Apocalypse texts are astronomy and oneiromancy, which is the interpretation of dreams (also including other-worldly travels).[9]
It is also said that Enmuderanki founded the title of baru, which means ‘master’. If there were certain diviners that focused on specific media, the baru would be a master of them all. More skilled in these arts than any, Enmuderanki would have been the beginning of a long line of baru who could reveal true knowledge as accurately as possible.[10]
For those practicing mantic wisdom to expose the mysteries of the universe in such ways, is to allow this trade a place within the science of that day. But there is also a creative component to it which allows it to be further categorized into an art form. It was scientific in the sense that it was practiced within a definite guiding method, and artistic in that its form was crafted to allow for experiences that are conducted in a somewhat ecstatic state.
[1] Vanderkam, James C. Enoch and the Growth of an Apocalyptic Tradition. 3.
[2] Mantic Wisdom being the information developed from an organized method of reading occurrences in the natural world. This information is then used to depict the future. Muller describes these things as the arts and writings of the diviner that became the foundation of the literary genre Apocalypse.
[3] Muller, H. P. “ Mantische Weisheit und Apokalyptic,” Congress Volume, Uppsala 1971. VTSup 22. Leiden: Brill, 1972, 268-93
[4] VanderKam,7
[5] Zimmern, Heinrick. “Urkronige und Uroffenbarung” 2.530-43.
[6] Antediluvian is defined as an individual that is associated with the period either before or during the flood of Genesis.
[7] VanderKam, 8
[8] Oppenheim, A. Leo. “Ancient Mesopotamia”, 207.
[9] VanderKam, 59-62.
[10] VanderKam, 56-58.
the purpose
August 25, 2007
i am passive-aggressive.
i have lots of ideas but am afraid of the outcome of most of them.
this is my place to express these things.
to begin… i’m working back through my semester’s work on 1 Enoch.
I’ve attached a draft of this final work in a pdf file that you can view.
I will also be editing and posting a section of it over the next weeks until it is completed.
Feel free to comment, question, and provide editorial techniques on each of these pieces.
Today’s post is a brief introduction… not much… but it’s the beginning….
Introduction
Enochic literature is a genre unique to its self. Many of the details behind the foundational books of this genre have been unavailable to scholars until recently. The text of 1 Enoch survives only because of the Ethiopic translation and large portions of it’s books found among the Dead Sea Scrolls at Qumran Cave 4. 1 Enoch is a Jewish pseudonymous text dating from around the third century BCE to the first century BCE. The text claims to be exegeting Genesis 5:18-24 throughout five separate books (in chronological order below):
1. The Astronomical Book (1 Enoch 72-82); 3rd Century BCE
2. The Book of the Watchers (1 Enoch 1-36); 3rd Century BCE
3. The Epistle of Enoch (1 Enoch 91-108); 2nd Century BCE
4. The Book of Dreams (1 Enoch 83-90); 2nd Century BCE
5. The Book of Parables (1 Enoch 37-71); 1st Century BCE/CE.
Each of the five books of 1 Enoch were written in a popular literary form that included a combination of scientific and artistic expressions that was later labeled Apocalypse.[1] It is out of these books that many influential ideas encouraged the further development of an Apocalypse literature. From this foundational literature, theological perspectives pertaining to Jewish and Christian eschatology developed into statements of faith.
Although the following chapters will not cover the scholarship devoted to Enochic literature in its entirety, it will attempt to summarize three aspects pertaining to the life of 1 Enoch. The details of the literary expression within 1 Enoch and the influences of common cultural practices will be covered in the first section, “Cultural Influences”. Although some clues within the text point to a certain sect of Judaism, or combination thereof, its actual authors are unknown. Section two, “Themes of Enoch” will discuss the understandings of various scholars as to who wrote the text, perhaps why they wrote it, and how it compares to other texts of the same nature. As its popularity grew, authors elaborated Enochic themes in later writings that had lasting effects on Judaism and specifically Christianity. The third section will examine these effects, “From Judaism to Christianity”.
[1] VanderKam, James C. The Jewish Apocalyptic Heritage in Early Christianity. 2.
